Nouns[]
Definiteness[]
Definiteness is marked with the suffix -â. Examples:
- lûpûs "house"
- lûpûs-â "the house"
- lûpûs.ikh "houses"
- lûpûs.ikh-â "the houses"
Number[]
Plural form of nouns have a suffix -(i)kh. Many nouns have a simplified stem in the plural. E.g.:
- lûpûs "house" - lûpûs.ikh "houses"
- siw "animal" - siw.ikh "animals"
- suyas "aunt" - suys.ikh "aunts"
- mayadû "bank" - maydû.kh "banks"
- lâbah "hospital" - lâbh.ikh "hospitals"
- miw "knight" - miw.ikh "knights"
- wapârl "arm" - wapârl.ikh "arms"
- wuwik "star" - wiwk.ikh "stars"
Case[]
There is no case indication in nouns. The following prepositions are used:
- Accusative: a
- Dative: me
- Genitive: kin
- Locative: ser
- Instrumental: les
- Ablative: shew
Ex.:
- Nominative: lûpûs "a house"
- Accusative: a lûpûs "a house"
- Dative: me lûpûs "to a house"
- Genitive: kin lûpûs "of a house"
- Locative: ser lûpûs "in a house"
- Instrumental: les lûpûs "with a house"
- Ablative: shew lûpûs "from a house"
- Nominative: lûpûs-â "the house"
- Accusative: a lûpûs-â "the house"
- Dative: me lûpûs-â "to the house"
- Genitive: kin lûpûs-â "of the house"
- Locative: ser lûpûs-â "in the house"
- Instrumental: les lûpûs-â "with the house"
- Ablative: shew lûpûs-â "from the house"
Gender[]
Feminine is formed with the suffix -in. It is used to distinguish gender in names of living beings (animals, professions &c.). E.g.:
- yashnân "teacher" (man) - yashnân.in "teacher" (woman) -
- apkap "(an animal like an) ox" - apkap.in "(an animal like a) cow"
Plural is made from the original (masculine) noun:
- yashnân.ikh "teachers" (men) - yashnân.ikh.in "teachers" (women) -
- apkap.ikh "(animals like) oxen" - apkap.ikh.in "(animals like) cows"
Examples[]
- naspar "a hand"
- naspr.ikh "hands"
- naspar-â "the hand"
- naspr.ikh-â "the hands"
- ser naspar-â "in the hand"
- ser naspr.ikh-â "in the hands"
- les naspar-â "with the hand"
- les naspr.ikh-â "with the hands"
- wânal "a chief"
- wânl.ikh "chiefs"
- wânl-â "the chief"
- wânl.ikh-â "the chiefs"
- kin wânl-â "of the chief"
- kin wânl.ikh-â "of the chief"
- me wânl-â "to the chief"
- ser lûpûs-â "in the house"
Adjectives[]
Adjectives do not agree with nouns. E.g.:
- wânal mamcnip "a brave chief"
- wânl.ikh mamcnip "brave chiefs"
- wânl-â mamcnip "the brave chief"
- wânl.ikh-â mamcnip "the brave chiefs"
- kin wânl-â mamcnip "of the brave chief"
- kin wânl.ikh-â mamcnip "of the brave chief"
- me wânl-â mamcnip "to the brave chief"
When used as nouns, adjectives have full nominal declension:
- mamcnip "(a) brave one"
- mamcnip.ikh "brave ones"
- mamcnip-â "the brave one"
- mamcnip.ikh-â "the brave ones"
- kin mamcnip-â "the brave one"
- kin mamcnip.ikh-â "the brave ones"
- me mamcnip-â "to the brave one"
Comparison[]
Comparative of superiority is made with the suffix -sây:
- mamcnip "brave" - mamcnip-sây "braver"
- wûdim "good" - wûdim-sây "better"
Relative Superlative is made with the suffix -mâx:
- mamcnip "brave" - mamcnip-mâx "the bravest"
- wûdim "good" - wûdim-mâx "the best"
Absolute Superlative is made with the prefix nebi-:
- mamcnip "brave" - nebi-mamcnip "very brave"
- wûdim "good" - nebi-wûdim "very good"
Pronouns[]
Personal[]
- 1st person singular: kuk
- 2nd person singular: yâns
- 3rd person sing. m.: lanû
- 3rd person sing. f.: nayû
- 1st person plural: mak
- 2nd person plural: tamû
- 3rd person plural: lâk
Possessive[]
Possessive pronouns consist of a suffix, that are added to the definite form of the noun.
- 1st person singular: -ksh
- 2nd person singular: -d
- 3rd person sing. m.: -l
- 3rd person sing. f.: -p
- 1st person plural: -m
- 2nd person plural: -b
- 3rd person plural: -t
Examples:
- lûpûs-â-ksh "my house"
- lûpûs-â-d "your house"
- lûpûs.ikh-â-t "their houses"
Sometimes the personal pronouns is prefixed to the noun:
- kuk-lûpûs-â-ksh "my house"
- yâns-lûpûs-â-d "your house"
Numbers[]
Cardinal[]
- 0: lan
- 1: kikkân
- 2: law
- 3: yamam
- 4: nûsxir
- 5: nuhgis
- 6: purdip
- 7: palla
- 8: muxûp
- 9: luyam
- 10: yaskunk
- 11: yaskunkân
- 12: yaskunlaw
- 13: yaskunamam
- 14: yaskunnûsxir
- 15: yaskunnuhgis
- 16: yaskunpurdip
- 17: yaskunpalla
- 18: yaskunmuxûp
- 19: yaskunluyam
- 20: yadsî
- 30: yammunk
- 40: nûsrunk
- 50: nukshunk
- 60: purdpunk
- 70: pallunk
- 80: muxpunk
- 90: luymunk
- 100: kipkansih
- 200: law-kipkansih
- 1000: yâhtasir
- 1234: yâhtasir law-kipkansih yammunk nûsxir
Ordinal[]
Ordinal numbers are built with the ending -(y)îs; some numbers have an irregular form:
- 1st: kisânîs
- 2nd: lawayîs
- 3rd: yâyamîs
- 4th: nûsxirîs
- 5th: nuhgisîs
&c.
Verbs[]
Concepts[]
There are no auxiliary verbs or periphrastic constructions, all verbal expressions are made up with a single word.
Infixes are used to create derivational roots. Aspect is indicated by means of infixes, prefixes or root alteration (mutation). Time is indicated by means of suffixes.
For persons, subject is indicated by suffixes, while direct objects are indicated by prefixes.
Derivation[]
A verb root may have the following derivational stems:
- -in-: Transitiveness. Changes an intransitive verb to a transitive one. Ex.: lupwis "lie down", lupinwis "lay (something) down"
- -ash-: Passiveness. Changes an active to a passive verb. Ex.: pakhuyrûk "see", pakashhuyrûk "be seen"
- -al-: Repetition. Indicates that the action is repeated several times. Ex.: pâwî "shout", pâwalî "shout (repeatedly)"
- -at-: Causative. Changes a normal verb to a causative verb. Ex.: pakhuyrûk "see", pakathuyrûk "show"
- -ak- (after the first consonant): Potentiality. Indicates ability ("can"). Ex.: pakhuyrûk "see", pakakhuyrûk "be able to see", pakakathuyrûk "be able to show"
- -ur- (before the last vowel): Obligation. Like English "must", "should". Ex.: lupwis "lie down", lupwuris "must lie down", pakathuyrurûk "must show"
- -ay-: Volitive. Translated by "want", "wish". Ex.: pakhuyrûk "see", pakhuyayrûk "want to see",
- Intensive: indicated by means of a repetition of a consonant or a whole syllable of the root. Ex.: pâwî "shout", pâwâwî "shout (many times or with great strength)"
- -âni: Limitative. Indicates that the action is executed in a limited or tentative way. Root is generally shortened. Ex.: pakhuyrûk "see", pahrawâni "try to see", "take a look"
Aspect[]
- a-...-a: Aorist. Internal vowels are generally lost. Ex.: lupwis "lie down", aor. alpwisa; lupinwis "lay (something) down", aor. alpinwisa
- ...-un-...-â: Perfective. Ex.: lupwis "lie down", perf. lupunwisâ
Time[]
Present time is not marked. Past and future are indicated as follows:
- -ax: Near (pragmatical) Past.
- -aw: Remote (narrative) Past.
- -um: Near Future.
- -as: Remote Future.
Person[]
Subject is indicated by means of suffixes.
- 1st person singular: -aksh
- 2nd person singular: -ad
- 3rd person sing. m.: -al
- 3rd person sing. f.: -ap
- 1st person plural: -im
- 2nd person plural: -ib
- 3rd person plural: -it
Direct Object is indicated by prefixes:
- 1st person singular: k(a)-
- 2nd person singular: y(a)-
- 3rd person sing. m.: l(a)-
- 3rd person sing. f.: p(a)-
- 1st person plural: m(i)-
- 2nd person plural: b(i)-
- 3rd person plural: t(i)-
Examples[]
pakhuyrûk "see"
Present Tense[]
- 1st person singular: pakhuyrûkaksh
- 2nd person singular: pakhuyrûkad
- 3rd person sing. m.: pakhuyrûkal
- 3rd person sing. f.: pakhuyrûkap
- 1st person plural: pakhuyrûkim
- 2nd person plural: pakhuyrûkib
- 3rd person plural: pakhuyrûkit
Aorist Past Tense[]
- 1st person singular: afhuyrukaxaksh
- 2nd person singular: afhuyrukaxad
- 3rd person sing. m.: afhuyrukaxal
- 3rd person sing. f.: afhuyrukaxap
- 1st person plural: afhuyrukaxim
- 2nd person plural: afhuyrukaxib
- 3rd person plural: afhuyrukaxit
Perfect Past Tense[]
- 1st person singular: pakhunrûkâxaksh
- 2nd person singular: pakhunrûkâxad
- 3rd person sing. m.: pakhunrûkâxal
- 3rd person sing. f.: pakhunrûkâxap
- 1st person plural: pakhunrûkâxim
- 2nd person plural: pakhunrûkâxib
- 3rd person plural: pakhunrûkâxit
Future Tense[]
- 1st person singular: pakhuyrûkumaksh
- 2nd person singular: pakhuyrûkumad
- 3rd person sing. m.: pakhuyrûkumal
- 3rd person sing. f.: pakhuyrûkumap
- 1st person plural: pakhuyrûkumim
- 2nd person plural: pakhuyrûkumib
- 3rd person plural: pakhuyrûkumit
Sample[]
- Sinlumtû.k-â mad mashunupâ-it napgimrû, shew gurkûsdûn yun shew huswisnâs.ikh. Lâk gawarunshpâ-it les dîwar yun les wûsdâs, yun bûnuduran-it me kuhgay.k-â ser kîfsûskan kin shâskin.
- ("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.")